CANADA HISTORY - DOCUMENTS COLONIAL

1863 A Narrative of the Capture and Destruction of the Steamer "Caroline" (1837) by Andrew Drew (1792-1878)

Analysis of the Document - (The Document follows below the Analysis)

In 1863, Andrew Drew’s A Narrative of the Capture and Destruction of the Steamer “Caroline” (1837) was published, recounting one of the most dramatic and controversial episodes in the turbulent history of Upper Canada during the rebellion of 1837-1838. Captain Andrew Drew’s personal account of the capture and destruction of the Caroline, a vessel used by American sympathizers to support Canadian rebels, provides not just a vivid retelling of the event but also sheds light on a moment that had far-reaching implications for Canada, the United States, and British colonial rule. The incident itself, occurring at the height of tensions between the reformist rebels in Upper Canada and the colonial authorities, became a flashpoint in British-American relations. For Canada, the destruction of the Caroline holds a particular significance, as it symbolized the fierce struggle to maintain British control and the precariousness of Canada’s sovereignty in the face of American expansionism and internal dissent. Drew’s narrative, published over two decades after the event, offers insight into how the rebellion, and the events surrounding it, influenced the development of Canadian national identity and shaped relations between Canada and the United States for years to come.

The Caroline affair took place in the midst of the Upper Canada Rebellion, a conflict driven by dissatisfaction with the political and economic structures of the colony. Reformers in Upper Canada, led by figures like William Lyon Mackenzie, were demanding responsible government and an end to the oligarchic rule of the so-called Family Compact, an elite group that controlled much of the colony’s political and economic power. When peaceful efforts to achieve reform were stymied, Mackenzie and his supporters turned to armed insurrection in December 1837, launching a poorly organized rebellion that quickly faltered. In the aftermath, many rebels fled across the border into the United States, where they found sympathy and support among American citizens who saw the Canadian struggle as part of a broader fight for republican ideals.

The Caroline, an American-owned steamboat, became a symbol of this cross-border support. The vessel was used to ferry supplies and reinforcements to the rebel forces on Navy Island, a small outpost in the Niagara River where Mackenzie and his followers had regrouped after their defeat. To the British colonial authorities, the use of American aid to support a rebellion on Canadian soil represented a grave threat, not only to the stability of the colony but also to British imperial interests in North America. The cross-border nature of the conflict raised the specter of American involvement, and tensions between Britain and the United States began to escalate. In this charged atmosphere, Captain Andrew Drew, a Royal Navy officer serving in Canada, was ordered to lead a small force to capture and destroy the Caroline.

Drew’s account of the events on the night of December 29, 1837, is one of action, danger, and high-stakes decision-making. Under the cover of darkness, Drew and his men rowed across the river from the Canadian side, boarded the Caroline while it was moored at Fort Schlosser on the American side, and after a brief skirmish in which a number of lives were lost, set the ship on fire and sent it over the Niagara Falls. The destruction of the Caroline effectively cut off the rebels’ supply line and helped prevent further American involvement in the Canadian rebellion. However, the operation also inflamed tensions between the United States and Britain, as the American government viewed the incursion as a violation of its sovereignty. The incident triggered a diplomatic crisis that would take years to fully resolve.

In the broader context of Canadian history, the destruction of the Caroline and the narrative that Drew published in 1863 have far-reaching implications. At the time, the action was widely praised by British authorities as a necessary defense of the colony against both internal rebellion and external aggression. Drew’s decisive leadership was celebrated, and his narrative of the event reinforced the notion that British control in Canada had to be maintained through strength and vigilance. The Caroline affair became part of a larger narrative about the defense of Canada’s borders and the need to protect the colony from American expansionism, a theme that would continue to shape Canadian political thought well into the 19th and 20th centuries.

One of the most significant implications of the Caroline affair was its impact on Anglo-American relations. The destruction of the Caroline was viewed by many Americans as an affront to their national sovereignty, and it nearly led to war between the United States and Britain. For several years, the two nations were embroiled in a tense diplomatic standoff, with the United States demanding reparations and an apology for the violation of its territory. Britain, for its part, defended Drew’s actions as a legitimate exercise of self-defense. The incident eventually led to the formulation of the "Caroline doctrine," an important principle in international law that established the conditions under which a state could justify the use of force in self-defense, particularly in situations involving cross-border conflicts. This doctrine would become a cornerstone of legal thinking about the use of force and the rights of nations to defend themselves, influencing not only British and American relations but also the broader framework of international law.

For Canada, the Caroline affair was a key moment in the development of its relationship with the United States. The cross-border dynamics of the rebellion, and the support that Canadian rebels received from American citizens, highlighted the fragility of the Canadian-American border and the potential for conflicts in Canada to draw in its much larger neighbor to the south. The episode underscored the need for strong defense and clear diplomatic boundaries between the two nations, themes that would become central to Canadian foreign policy as the country moved toward Confederation in 1867 and beyond. In a sense, the Caroline affair foreshadowed the ongoing concerns about American influence and interference in Canadian affairs, concerns that would resurface during times of conflict, such as the Fenian Raids of the 1860s and, later, in the debates over Canadian sovereignty during the Cold War.

Drew’s 1863 narrative also speaks to the broader issue of loyalty and identity in early Canadian history. The rebellion of 1837-38, though ultimately a failure, was a defining moment in the evolution of Canadian political consciousness. The Caroline affair, as recounted by Drew, offers a glimpse into the complexities of this period, where loyalty to the British Crown and the desire for reform and responsible government existed in a delicate and often violent balance. The destruction of the Caroline can be seen as a symbol of the British determination to maintain control over its North American colonies, even as the forces of republicanism and democratic reform were gaining strength both in Canada and abroad. The tensions between loyalty to Britain and the desire for a more representative government would continue to shape Canadian political life in the years following the rebellion, ultimately culminating in the achievement of responsible government in the 1840s and the creation of a more autonomous Canadian state with Confederation in 1867.

Moreover, Drew’s narrative, written more than two decades after the event, reflects the way in which the rebellion and its associated events became mythologized in Canadian history. By 1863, Canada was on the verge of Confederation, and the rebellion had come to be seen not just as a failed insurrection but as an important part of the struggle for political reform and self-determination. Drew’s account of the Caroline destruction is framed in heroic terms, emphasizing the courage and decisiveness of the British forces in the face of a dangerous and destabilizing threat. This narrative helped to reinforce the idea of British Canada as a bastion of law and order, where legitimate authority triumphed over the forces of disorder and rebellion. At the same time, the memory of the Caroline affair became intertwined with the broader narrative of Canadian resistance to American encroachment, contributing to a sense of Canadian distinctiveness and independence from both the United States and Britain.

In conclusion, Andrew Drew’s A Narrative of the Capture and Destruction of the Steamer “Caroline” (1837), published in 1863, is a vital document in understanding the complexities of Canadian history during a period of political upheaval and cross-border tensions. The destruction of the Caroline not only played a critical role in quelling the Upper Canada Rebellion but also had far-reaching implications for British-American relations, the development of international law, and the evolution of Canadian political identity. For Canada, the affair reinforced the importance of defending its borders and sovereignty while navigating the delicate balance between loyalty to Britain and the desire for greater autonomy. Drew’s narrative offers a powerful reminder of the challenges that faced Canada in its early years and the way in which moments of conflict, both internal and external, helped to shape the nation’s path toward self-governance and independence.

I directed the boats to move their oars as gently as possible, just enough to stem the current, and not to talk, or even whisper. Being able to expend half an hour here unseen was a great event for us, to allow it to become darker, as everything depended upon our being able to reach the vessel unseen. At last I judged it dark enough, and we dropped silently down upon our prey literally without moving an oar until we were close alongside of her. These were anxious moments for me, knowing how hazardous it is to climb a vessel's side and make good a footing upon the deck without being knocked on the head; however, in this, as in everything else, fortune favoured us. When within a boat's length of the vessel, one of the watch (who had apparently just awoke out of a sleep) cried out, "Boat, ahoy! boat, ahoy!"

"Give us the countersign," I answered, in a low tone of voice. "Silence, silence! Don't make a noise, and I'll give you the countersign when we get on board." I then mounted the vessel's side, which I had some difficulty in doing for want of a ladder, and when fairly on deck I drew my sword, and found three men lounging over the starboard gangway unarmed, and quite unconcerned. I said to them, "Now I want this vessel, and you had better go ashore at once." She was laying alongside a wharf, to which she was secured. I waved my sword over their heads to make them go, and I do not think that until this moment they fairly understood their position. Then they moved leisurely over to the port-side, I thinking they were going on shore; but as they saw none of my party on the deck but myself they took up their fire-arms, which it appeared had been left on that side the deck, and the foremost man fired his loaded musket at me. Not more than a yard from him, how the ball missed me I do not know; but he was too close to take aim, and it passed me. I thought this an act of treachery, and that I need show him no mercy, so with the full swing of my arm I gave him a cut with my sword over the left temple, and he dropped at my feet. In another second one of the other men put a pistol close to my face and pulled the trigger; fortunately it flashed in the pan, or I should not have been here to have told the tale. Why I was so lenient with this man I do not know, for he deserved death at my hands as much as the other; but I merely gave him a sabre-cut on the inside of the right arm, which made him drop his pistol, and he was unarmed. The other man I disarmed, and drove them both over the side; but as they did not seem to move as fast as I thought they ought, I gave them about an inch or two of the point of my sword, which quickened their pace wonderfully.

All this did not appear to have taken up more than a minute of time, and we were in complete possession of the after-part of the vessel. Three of the boats boarded for ward, where there was a good deal of firing going on, and, as the quarter-deck was clear, I mounted the idle-box and gave orders for the firing to cease immediately, fearing from the darkness of the night we might take friends for foes; and Lieutenant MacCormick had already received a desperate wound.

The vessel was now entirely in our possession, and, to guard against an attack from the shore, I directed Lieutenant Elmsley to head a small party as an advanced guard, to warn us should an attack be meditated. We then roused everybody out of their beds and sent them on shore, a considerable number of persons having been sleeping on board. After this the vessel was set on fire in four different places, and soon began to burn. The next thing was to cast her off from the jetty, which at one time I feared we should have had great difficulty in doing, as she was made fast with chains under water, or rather under ice for this was the middle of a Canadian winter, where water freezes to the thickness of a foot in a short time; but a young gentleman of the name of Sullivan, understanding the difficulty, seized hold of an axe, jumped down upon the ice, and in a short time cleared the chain and set the vessel adrift.

This done, and the vessel in flames fore and aft, I ordered everyone to the boats, which became the more necessary as the enemy had opened a fire of musketry from the shore, and some shot came disagreeably near to me standing on the paddle-box. The order was soon oheyed, for it was also getting too hot to stand upon ihe deck. I did not give any particular orders to the officer of my own boat; but I intended to be the last person out of the vessel, and naturally thought they would wait for me, and, when just ready to embark, I saw a man coming up the fore hatchway. I went forward to ascertain whether it was likely anyone else was down below; but the man said it was not possible, for it was so hot he could not have lived there another minute. I then went to get into my boat, when to my horror I found that every boat had left the vessel. I cannot describe my feelings at that moment, nor shall I ever forget the sensation that came over me: the vessel in flames and fast drifting down the stream. I looked around, and could just see one boat in the distance; another minute would have been fatal to me. I hailed her to come back, calling out as loud as I could that they had left me behind; fortunately, they heard me, and returned and took me and the man on board.

Having now accomplished our object, we had only to find our way safely back; and when we rounded the point of the island before named we saw a tremendous blazing fire on the Canadian shore, not only enough to guide us, but almost to light us on our way back. It was most welcome, for by this time it had become quite dark. Not caring about discovery now, and as little for shot from Navy Island, we kept much closer to it, and felt safe in so doing. We landed between two and three o'clock in the morning at the spot from whence we started, and found hosts of people to receive us with good hearty British cheers. Sir Allan Macnab was most particularly cordial in his welcome, and candidly acknowledged he never expected to see me again, but that our success had far exceeded his most sanguine expectations.

By this time the burning vessel was fast approaching the Canadian shore, and not far distant. Of all the marvels attending this novel expedition, the course which the steamer took of her own accord was the most wonderful. When free from the wharf at Fort Schlosser, her natural course would have been to follow the stream, which would have taken her along the American shore and over the American Falls; but she acted as if she was aware she had changed owners, and navigated herself right across the river, clearing the Rapids above Goat Island, and went as fairly over the centre of the British Falls of Niagara as if she had been placed there on purpose.

There were hundreds of people on the banks of the river to witness the splendid sight, for it was perfectly beautiful, and the descent took place within a quarter of an hour after our landing; and no human ingenuity could have accomplished what the vessel had so easily done for herself.