CANADA HISTORY - War-WWI

Sam Hughs

Sam Hughes, born in Durham, Ontario, in 1853, remains one of the most controversial and polarizing figures in Canadian military history, particularly for his role during the First World War. A man of boundless energy, fierce nationalism, and strong opinions, Hughes was known for his maverick nature, often disregarding orders or established protocol in pursuit of his own vision for Canada’s war effort. His legacy, as Minister of Militia and Defence during the war, is one of both achievement and failure. His leadership helped raise and mobilize Canada’s first massive volunteer army, but his erratic decision-making and attachment to ineffective equipment, notably the Ross rifle, cast a long shadow over his contributions. To understand Hughes' complex legacy, it is essential to delve into his background, his rise to power, his role in shaping Canada’s military participation in the First World War, and the eventual downfall that led to his resignation in 1916.

Early Life and Political Rise
Born into a middle-class family, Sam Hughes initially pursued a career in education. After a short stint as a teacher, he transitioned into journalism by purchasing the Lindsay Warder, a local newspaper in Ontario. Through this platform, Hughes voiced his often controversial views on politics, the military, and national affairs. His outspokenness attracted attention, and he soon found himself entering politics, becoming the Conservative Member of Parliament for Victoria North in 1892.

Hughes’ involvement in the military predated his political career. He had long been a member of the Canadian militia, where he served as the commanding officer of the 45th Victoria Regiment. His passion for military affairs, coupled with his ardent loyalty to the British Empire, positioned him as a leading voice on national defense matters. However, his independent streak and disregard for authority became apparent early in his career, particularly during the South African War (1899–1902).

The South African War and Hughes’ First Defiance
When the South African War broke out in 1899, Hughes saw an opportunity to make a name for himself on the battlefield. Overstepping the chain of command, Hughes bypassed both Major General Edward Hutton, the senior British officer in charge of the Canadian militia, and the Canadian Minister of Militia, offering his services directly to the Secretary of State for the Colonies. Hughes proposed that he would raise and lead a Canadian battalion in the conflict. However, General Hutton, unimpressed by Hughes’ actions, refused to allow him to go to South Africa in any official capacity.

Undeterred, Hughes continued to press for involvement in the war, writing letters of apology to Hutton in an attempt to smooth things over. Eventually, he was allowed to accompany the Canadian contingent to South Africa, but only as a civilian observer. Once in South Africa, however, Hughes disregarded his orders and donned a military uniform, participating in the conflict as a soldier in defiance of the instructions that had been given to him. This early episode revealed much about Hughes’ personality: he was ambitious, bold, and willing to ignore protocol to get his way, characteristics that would define his later career during the First World War.

Minister of Militia and the First World War
Hughes’ rise to national prominence came in 1911, when Sir Robert Borden’s Conservative government won the federal election. Hughes was appointed to Borden’s cabinet as Minister of Militia and Defence, a role that he had long coveted. In this position, Hughes would become responsible for preparing Canada for war, an eventuality that loomed as tensions escalated in Europe. Although Hughes brought tremendous energy and passion to his new role, his tenure as minister was marked by both notable successes and significant missteps.

When the First World War broke out in August 1914, Hughes moved swiftly to mobilize the Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF). Despite having canceled detailed mobilization plans that had been laid out in advance, Hughes took personal charge of organizing the volunteer force, often micromanaging the process. His decision to cancel these pre-existing plans created chaos and confusion, but Hughes' energy and commitment ensured that thousands of Canadian volunteers were quickly assembled and trained at Valcartier, a hastily constructed training camp near Quebec City. Valcartier soon became a massive camp with over 31,000 men living in bell tents, undergoing rudimentary training before being shipped overseas.

The initial mobilization was successful in large part due to the overwhelming enthusiasm of Canadian volunteers. Motivated by patriotism, duty to the Empire, and, for some, economic necessity, tens of thousands of men flocked to enlist. By the end of 1914, more than 59,000 men had volunteered to serve in the CEF, surpassing the initial commitment of 25,000 men that Prime Minister Borden had promised Britain. Hughes oversaw this rapid mobilization with his characteristic hands-on approach, often personally inspecting troops and making decisions about their deployment.

The Controversy of the Ross Rifle

One of the most controversial aspects of Hughes’ tenure as Minister of Militia was his insistence on equipping the Canadian troops with the Ross rifle. The Ross rifle, a Canadian-made weapon, was the brainchild of Sir Charles Ross, a Scottish-born inventor and industrialist. Hughes, an ardent nationalist, saw the rifle as a symbol of Canadian self-reliance and was eager to adopt it for the Canadian army. However, the Ross rifle was not suited for the conditions of modern trench warfare. While it performed well in target shooting and early trials, the rifle frequently jammed when exposed to the mud, dirt, and rapid firing that characterized the Western Front. Canadian soldiers quickly grew to despise the rifle, and many discarded it in favor of the more reliable British Lee-Enfield rifle.

Despite mounting complaints from officers and soldiers in the field, Hughes stubbornly defended the Ross rifle, insisting that any problems were due to improper maintenance rather than flaws in the weapon itself. His refusal to heed the concerns of the men fighting on the front lines caused widespread frustration and contributed to his eventual downfall. The Ross rifle debacle is often cited as one of Hughes’ greatest failures, emblematic of his tendency to let personal beliefs override practical concerns.

Clash with British Command and the Formation of the Canadian Corps
One area in which Hughes played a more positive role was in maintaining the integrity of the Canadian forces as a distinct entity within the British Army. When the first Canadian contingent arrived in England, British authorities, led by Lord Kitchener, initially planned to divide the Canadian troops and disperse them among various British units. Hughes fiercely opposed this plan. According to Hughes' own account, he confronted Kitchener at the British War Office and refused to allow the Canadian troops to be split up. In a dramatic exchange, Kitchener allegedly ordered Hughes to follow the British plan, to which Hughes responded, "I'll be damned if I will" and walked out of the meeting.

Although the details of this confrontation have been embellished over time, the outcome was clear: the Canadian troops remained intact as a separate division, a decision that had far-reaching consequences for Canada’s military identity. Hughes’ actions, coupled with Prime Minister Borden’s legal intervention, ensured that the Canadian soldiers would serve as a unified force under Canadian command. This decision laid the foundation for the creation of the Canadian Corps, which would go on to earn a formidable reputation for its performance in key battles such as Vimy Ridge and Passchendaele.

Downfall and Resignation
By 1916, Hughes' leadership was coming under increasing scrutiny. His hands-on, often erratic approach to managing the war effort had alienated many within the military and political establishment. Hughes was known for interfering in day-to-day operations, bypassing established chains of command, and making impulsive decisions. His unwavering support for the flawed Ross rifle further damaged his reputation.

In November 1916, Hughes’ tenure as Minister of Militia came to an abrupt end. Borden, frustrated by Hughes’ refusal to cooperate with the newly appointed Minister of Overseas Military Forces, Sir George Perley, demanded his resignation. Hughes, who had long enjoyed Borden’s support, found himself out of favor and was forced to step down. His resignation marked the end of an era in Canadian military leadership, though Hughes continued to serve as an MP until his death in 1921 at the age of 69.

Legacy
Sam Hughes’ legacy is a complex one. On the one hand, he played an instrumental role in mobilizing Canada’s war effort, overseeing the recruitment and training of thousands of volunteers and ensuring that Canadian soldiers served together as a distinct national force. His fierce nationalism and determination to protect Canadian interests earned him praise for defending the autonomy of Canadian troops within the British military structure.

On the other hand, Hughes’ leadership was marred by controversy. His obsession with the Ross rifle, his chaotic approach to administration, and his frequent clashes with both British and Canadian officials left a trail of frustration and dissatisfaction. His resignation in 1916 was seen by many as an inevitable result of his erratic behavior.

Ultimately, Sam Hughes’ contribution to Canada’s war effort is undeniable. His flaws, though significant, were overshadowed by his ability to get things done in the early, crucial stages of the war. Canada’s emergence as a respected military force on the world stage was in part due to Hughes’ efforts, and while his methods were often questionable, his impact on Canadian military history remains significant.