CANADA HISTORY - Prime Ministers

John A Macdonald

Sir John A. Macdonald, Canada’s first Prime Minister, is rightfully considered a founding father of the nation. His political career spanned several decades, during which he played a central role in the creation and expansion of Canada. Macdonald was instrumental in bringing the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick together in 1867 to form the Canadian Confederation, and later he successfully brought British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, and the vast Northwest Territories into the fold. A Scottish Highlander by birth, Macdonald was fiercely proud of his heritage, and his remarkable political instincts allowed him to navigate the turbulent waters of 19th-century Canadian politics with wisdom, pragmatism, and ambition.

Born in Glasgow, Scotland, on January 11, 1815, Macdonald emigrated to Kingston, Upper Canada (modern-day Ontario), with his family in 1820. His upbringing was far from privileged, and he grew up in financially difficult circumstances. By the age of 15, Macdonald was already working and soon thereafter began articling at a law firm in Kingston. His rise in the legal profession was swift, and by the time he was a young man, Macdonald had established himself as a successful lawyer. His entry into politics came naturally as his legal practice intersected with the business and political elite of Upper Canada.

In 1837, Macdonald answered the call during the Rebellions of 1837–1838, when William Lyon Mackenzie led a failed uprising against the Family Compact in Upper Canada. This experience gave him an early taste of political life, and by 1843, he had joined the joint legislative assembly of the Province of Canada (which combined Upper and Lower Canada). Macdonald was initially skeptical of political union and even opposed expanding the union to include the Maritimes, but as his career progressed, he became one of the most ardent supporters of Confederation.

Macdonald's political philosophy was deeply pragmatic. He realized early on that successful governance in Canada required a broad coalition of interests, particularly between English and French Canadians. His great political rival, George Brown, led the Clear Grits, a faction that was virulently anti-Catholic and opposed to accommodation with French Canadians. Macdonald, in contrast, forged an alliance with George-Étienne Cartier, the leader of the French-speaking population in Lower Canada (now Quebec), forming a powerful partnership that would guide the movement toward Confederation.

By 1864, the idea of a united Canada was gaining momentum. The American Civil War was raging to the south, and the specter of American expansionism loomed large over British North America. Many in the United States believed it was their "Manifest Destiny" to annex all of North America, and the British colonies were seen as vulnerable to this potential threat. These geopolitical fears played a critical role in the push for Confederation, as a united Canada would be better positioned to defend itself from possible American aggression.

In 1864, Macdonald’s Conservative government was defeated in the House of Commons, and the Governor General, Lord Monck, was preparing to dissolve the assembly. At this crucial moment, George Brown approached Macdonald with an offer to form a coalition government. The offer was accepted, and under the leadership of Étienne-Paschal Taché, the Confederation movement began in earnest. Macdonald and his colleagues traveled to Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, to meet with the Maritime leaders, who were contemplating their own union. With charm, diplomacy, and plenty of champagne, Macdonald convinced enough of the delegates to explore the idea of a larger Canadian union.



The following year, the leaders reconvened in Quebec City, where they hammered out the "Quebec Resolutions," which formed the basis of the British North America Act. Although Macdonald had been a late convert to federalism, he became its most ardent supporter. Much of the text of the British North America Act, which officially created Canada, was written in Macdonald’s own hand. His vision for the new country was inspired by lessons learned from the American experience, particularly the need to avoid the pitfalls of states’ rights that had contributed to the U.S. Civil War. In Macdonald’s view, Canada required a strong central government to maintain national unity.

In 1866, Macdonald, Brown, and several other Fathers of Confederation traveled to London to finalize the terms of Confederation with the British government. While in England, they met with Queen Victoria and worked tirelessly to ensure the passage of the British North America Act. During their time in London, the Fenians—an Irish nationalist group based in the United States—invaded Canada. Although their efforts were quickly repelled, the invasion inflamed anti-American sentiment in Canada and helped galvanize support for Confederation in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. In 1867, the British Parliament passed the British North America Act, setting July 1, 1867, as the date when the new nation of Canada would be born.

Macdonald, the obvious choice for leadership, became Canada’s first Prime Minister and was knighted as Sir John A. Macdonald. On July 1, 1867, he led the celebrations that marked the birth of the new nation. His first year in office was marked by challenges, particularly in overcoming the resistance of Joseph Howe, the leader of the anti-federalist movement in Nova Scotia. Macdonald eventually brought Howe into his cabinet, securing the support of the Maritimes for the fledgling country.

One of Macdonald’s most significant achievements as Prime Minister was the acquisition of Rupert’s Land, a vast territory owned by the Hudson’s Bay Company. The United States had shown interest in purchasing the land, offering $10 million to the British government, but Macdonald successfully negotiated the purchase of Rupert’s Land for £300,000, adding a massive swath of territory to Canada. However, the transfer of the land sparked unrest among the Métis population in the Red River settlement, led by Louis Riel. The Métis, feeling excluded from the negotiations, formed their own government, and the situation escalated into the Red River Rebellion.

Macdonald’s handling of the rebellion was one of the most controversial episodes of his career. Rather than negotiate with Riel, Macdonald treated him as a rebel, and tensions boiled over when an English settler named Thomas Scott was executed by Riel’s forces. The execution enraged the population of Ontario, and volunteers flooded westward to suppress the rebellion. Riel fled into exile, and in 1870, Manitoba was officially established as a province. Although Macdonald initially offered Riel a bribe to stay away, Riel later returned and was elected to Parliament in 1874, though he never took his seat.

Macdonald’s political challenges did not end with Manitoba. British Columbia, isolated from the rest of Canada by the Rocky Mountains, was being courted by the United States, and many residents favored annexation. Macdonald made a bold offer to British Columbia: if they joined Confederation, Canada would build a transcontinental railway to connect the province with the rest of the country. This promise proved to be one of the most ambitious projects of Macdonald’s career, and it became the defining issue of his later years in office. The Canadian Pacific Railway project was fraught with difficulties, not least of which was financing. Macdonald’s government became embroiled in the Pacific Scandal, involving bribes from railway contractors to Conservative Party officials. The scandal forced Macdonald to resign in 1873, and his party lost the 1874 election to Alexander Mackenzie’s Liberals. However, the economic downturn of the mid-1870s worked in Macdonald’s favor, and by 1878, he was back in power with a clear majority.

Macdonald’s second term in office saw the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway, with the last spike driven at Craigellachie in 1885. This achievement symbolized Macdonald’s vision of a united, transcontinental Canada. His "National Policy" rested on three pillars: the transcontinental railway, increased immigration to the western provinces, and a protective tariff to support Canadian industry. This policy helped spur economic growth and solidify Canada’s independence from the United States.

Macdonald won Despite these successes, Macdonald’s later years were marked by personal tragedy. His first wife had died after a long illness, and his second daughter, Mary, was born with hydrocephalus, a condition that caused swelling of the brain. Macdonald’s personal struggles with alcoholism were well-known, and although he often turned to the bottle for solace, the public was remarkably tolerant of his indulgence. Macdonald himself famously quipped that the people preferred "John A. drunk to his opponents sober."

Macdonald’s final political battle came in 1891, when he won re-election for the last time. However, the campaign took a heavy toll on his health, and he passed away on June 6, 1891, at the age of 76. His death was mourned across Canada and throughout the British Empire. As the "Father of Confederation" and Canada’s first Prime Minister, Sir John A. Macdonald left an indelible mark on the country he helped to create. His vision of a united Canada, stretching from sea to sea, remains one of the most important legacies in Canadian history.