CANADA HISTORY

Jacques Cartier

Jacques Cartier's voyages to the New World, particularly his exploration of the St. Lawrence River in 1535, are central to the early history of European exploration in Canada. His expeditions laid the groundwork for French claims to the territory and opened a new chapter in the interactions between Europeans and the Indigenous peoples of the region. Cartier's arrival at Stadacona (modern-day Quebec) and Hochelaga (modern-day Montreal) during his second voyage was of significant historical importance, marking the first recorded European contact with these Indigenous settlements and setting the stage for France’s later colonial efforts in North America.

Born in the seaport of St. Malo in 1491, Cartier had a background well-suited to maritime exploration. The details of his early life are largely unknown, but he was a skilled navigator and mariner by the time he was commissioned by King Francis I of France to explore the New World. In 1534, Cartier embarked on his first voyage, where he explored the coastlines of Newfoundland, Labrador, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. This initial journey was primarily one of reconnaissance, aimed at discovering new lands and potential trade routes, but it was his second voyage in 1535 that solidified his place in the annals of Canadian history.

Cartier’s second expedition in 1535-1536 is significant for his deeper penetration into the St. Lawrence River, where he encountered the Indigenous peoples who lived along its banks. After setting sail from the island of Coudres on September 7, 1535, Cartier and his crew navigated upstream, passing through a series of islands, including one particularly large island (now known as Île d'Orléans), before reaching the Iroquoian village of Stadacona. This marks the point where Cartier's crew officially entered the territory that would come to be known as Canada, derived from the Iroquoian word “kanata,” meaning village or settlement.

The Indigenous peoples Cartier encountered—specifically the St. Lawrence Iroquoians at Stadacona—played an essential role in his explorations. Chief Donnacona, the leader of Stadacona, welcomed Cartier and provided valuable assistance and information about the region. The Iroquoian peoples were deeply involved in the river's ecosystem, particularly in fishing, as Cartier noted. The rich aquatic resources of the St. Lawrence River, including varieties of fish like sturgeon, eels, and salmon, were integral to the local economy and way of life.

Cartier’s journey continued beyond Stadacona to Hochelaga, an Iroquoian settlement near modern-day Montreal. Here, Cartier described a vibrant and populous community. Hochelaga was a larger and more established village than Stadacona, with an estimated population of around 1,000 to 2,000 people. The village was situated at the base of a mountain, which Cartier named "Mont Royal" (Mount Royal), the namesake for the city of Montreal. Cartier’s description of Hochelaga gives us a rare glimpse into the lives of the Indigenous peoples of the St. Lawrence Valley before their eventual disappearance from the region by the time of later French explorers like Samuel de Champlain.

The significance of Cartier’s 1535 voyage cannot be overstated in the context of Canadian history. First, his detailed accounts of the St. Lawrence River and the Iroquoian settlements provided France with a strategic understanding of the region. This information proved crucial for later French efforts to establish colonies and trade networks in the New World. Cartier’s exploration of the St. Lawrence River opened up a natural route into the interior of North America, providing a gateway for future exploration and the fur trade, which would become a dominant economic force in the development of New France.

Moreover, Cartier’s interactions with the Indigenous peoples of the St. Lawrence River Valley reveal both the opportunities and challenges of early European-Indigenous relations. While Cartier was able to form relatively peaceful relations with the Iroquoians during this voyage, these interactions were framed by European desires for conquest, resources, and expansion. Cartier’s subsequent decision to kidnap Chief Donnacona and several other Iroquoians during his return voyage to France in 1536—ostensibly to present them to the French court as proof of his discoveries—underscores the exploitative nature of these early encounters.

Despite the promising start, Cartier's third voyage to Canada in 1541 was far less successful. His goal during this final expedition was to establish a permanent colony, but it was plagued by poor planning, conflicts with the Indigenous peoples, and harsh environmental conditions. The attempt at colonization quickly failed, and Cartier returned to France. His failure to establish a lasting settlement delayed French efforts to colonize the region by several decades, but his voyages had already laid the foundation for future French claims to Canada.

Cartier’s voyages also had lasting consequences for the Indigenous peoples of the St. Lawrence Valley. His reports, along with subsequent French expeditions, drew European attention to the region, leading to increased contact, trade, and eventually conflict. By the early 17th century, when Samuel de Champlain arrived to found Quebec in 1608, the St. Lawrence Iroquoians whom Cartier had encountered were gone, likely displaced or absorbed by other Indigenous groups, such as the Mohawk. The reasons for their disappearance remain uncertain, but it is likely that European-introduced diseases and intertribal warfare contributed to their decline.

In sum, Jacques Cartier’s voyages, particularly his second journey up the St. Lawrence River, were pivotal in shaping the early history of European exploration in Canada. His exploration of Stadacona and Hochelaga provided crucial information that would guide future French colonization efforts. The St. Lawrence River, which he navigated, would become the artery through which French trade, exploration, and influence would flow into the heart of North America. Cartier’s interactions with Indigenous peoples, while often exploitative, also represent the beginning of a complex and often tragic history of European-Indigenous relations in Canada. His legacy is deeply intertwined with the early colonial history of what would become Canada, making him one of the most important figures in the country’s early European history.

JACQUES CARTIER SAILS UP THE ST. LAWRENCE, 1535
Jacques Cartier was born in the seaport of St. Malo, Brittany, France, in 1491. Little is known of his early history as a mariner until he appears as pilot of an expedition to America in 1534. His first voyage took him to Newfoundland, Labrador, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The second voyage, made in 1535 and 1536, is more significant than the first because Cartier penetrated to Stadacona ( Quebec) and Hochelaga ( Montreal). He returned to Canada in 1541, but little is known of this voyage. The extract given here from the narrative of the second voyage describes Cartier's arrival at Stadacona and Hochelaga.
. . . On [Tuesday], the seventh of the month [ September, 1535 ], being our Lady's day, after hearing mass, we set out from this [Coudres] island to proceed up stream, and came to fourteen islands which lay some seven or eight leagues beyond Coudres island. This is the point where the province and territory of Canada begins. One of these islands is large, being some ten leagues long and five leagues wide, and is inhabited by Indians who are much employed in fishing for the many varieties of fish caught in this river, according to the season. Mention will be made of these fish farther on. After we had cast H. P. Biggar, "The Voyages of Jacques Cartier," Publications of the Public Archives of Canada, No. 11 ( Ottawa, 1924), 119-124, 149-156.