CANADA HISTORY

Empire

When Canada achieved nationhood status in 1867 through Confederation, it was still far from being a fully sovereign state. Under the British North America Act, Canada was a self-governing Dominion within the British Empire, with considerable domestic autonomy, but when it came to foreign relations and international diplomacy, Canada remained under the control of Great Britain. Issues such as foreign policy, military defense, and trade negotiations were handled by London, and any disputes Canada had with foreign powers, particularly the United States, were addressed by British officials on Canada's behalf. This arrangement reflected the imperial hierarchy, where Britain's interests and authority remained paramount, and the Dominions like Canada were expected to defer to the Imperial Government.

Early Tensions in Canadian Foreign Relations

As Canada grew in population and political stature, particularly through waves of immigration from Great Britain, these ties with the mother country remained strong in English-speaking Canada. This was particularly evident in places like Manitoba, where British settlers expanded the feeling of fraternity towards the British Empire. However, in French Canada, the connection with Britain was far more superficial. French Canadians harbored lingering resentment over their conquest by Britain in the 18th century, and they viewed the British Empire with ambivalence at best. Although educated French Canadians accepted the importance of maintaining a relationship with Britain, there was little enthusiasm for deeper imperial integration.

Canada's subordinate role in foreign affairs became more pronounced during moments of international tension. For example, when disputes arose with the United States, such as over fishing rights or boundary issues, the British Government took charge of negotiations, often with limited Canadian input. The Treaty of Washington (1871), which settled various issues between the U.S. and Britain (and by extension, Canada), included a Canadian representative, but this was an exception rather than the rule. In general, Canada’s foreign relations remained firmly in British hands, reflecting the lack of a fully developed Canadian diplomatic apparatus.

The Establishment of the High Commissioner's Office

A small but important step towards greater Canadian autonomy came in 1880 with the establishment of the Canadian High Commissioner in London. This office was intended to represent Canada’s interests directly to the British government, offering a means of coordination on issues of mutual concern. The creation of this office reflected Canada’s growing desire to have a say in its own affairs, particularly in matters of trade and immigration policy. Over time, this High Commission became a more formal representation of Canada in Britain, though it still operated within the framework of imperial subordination.

Imperialism and Global Rivalries in the 1890s

By the late 19th century, the global context in which Britain and its Dominions operated began to change. Europe was entering an era of heightened rivalry, driven by the rapid rise of Germany and the emergence of Russia as an industrial power. These global powers were scrambling to acquire colonies and establish spheres of influence around the world, leading to intense competition for unclaimed territories. This age of imperialism saw European empires expanding into Africa, Asia, and the Pacific, and Britain, as the world’s dominant power, was keen to consolidate its far-flung empire to withstand the mounting challenges.

The most pressing threat came from Germany, whose ambitious Kaiser Wilhelm II had embarked on a massive naval build-up, hoping to rival Britain’s dominance at sea. The German High Seas Fleet posed a direct challenge to the Royal Navy, which had traditionally guaranteed British control of the world’s oceans. In response, Britain began to reassess its own resources and looked to its Empire for support. Britain sought ways to integrate its Dominions more closely into the imperial system, particularly in matters of defense, trade, and diplomacy.

Joseph Chamberlain and the Imperial Vision

In 1895, Joseph Chamberlain was appointed as Britain’s Colonial Secretary, and he quickly became the leading proponent of a more integrated and centralized Imperial strategy. Chamberlain believed that the Dominions should not only share in the economic prosperity of the Empire but also contribute more directly to its defense and global standing. He envisioned an Imperial Federation, where Britain and its Dominions would be united under a single overarching structure, with a Grand Imperial Parliament that could address global issues such as defense, trade, and diplomacy from a centralized position in London.

In Chamberlain’s view, defense and trade were critical areas in which the Empire needed to act as a unified whole. Britain was facing mounting challenges from both Germany and Russia, and Chamberlain argued that the Dominions had a responsibility to contribute to the Empire’s military and economic strength. His proposals for Imperial Preference in trade would reduce tariffs and duties on goods exchanged within the Empire, thereby promoting inter-imperial trade and reducing reliance on foreign powers, such as the United States. The Dominions, in turn, would benefit from greater access to British markets and increased protection from foreign competition.

The Colonial Conference of 1897 and Laurier’s Response

In 1897, Chamberlain convened the Colonial Conference in London, timed to coincide with Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee. The gathering was intended to showcase the unity of the British Empire and launch Chamberlain’s vision for an Imperial Council, which would oversee matters of defense, trade, and foreign policy across the Empire. Chamberlain saw Canada as a key player in this new imperial arrangement, and he believed that Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier would be a supporter of his grand vision.

Laurier, however, had different ideas. While he recognized the importance of Canada’s ties to Britain, he was a staunch advocate of Canadian autonomy. He knew that any attempt to centralize power in London would be deeply unpopular in French Canada and among many English Canadians as well. Laurier believed that Canada’s destiny lay in greater independence, not in closer imperial integration. At the Colonial Conference, he resisted Chamberlain’s calls for an Imperial Federation and insisted that Canada’s participation in the Empire should remain voluntary and based on responsible government.

Laurier’s deft diplomacy at the conference allowed him to maintain Canada’s position within the Empire while rejecting any moves towards centralized imperial control. The result was a compromise resolution that reaffirmed the status quo: Canada would remain a loyal member of the British Empire but would not be bound by any imperial decisions that did not directly concern its own interests.

The Boer War and the Debate Over Imperial Involvement

The tensions between Canadian nationalism and imperial loyalty came to a head during the Boer War (1899-1902). Britain’s decision to wage war against the Boer republics in South Africa over control of the region’s rich gold and diamond deposits sparked a fierce debate in Canada. While many English Canadians supported the war as a just cause in defense of the Empire, French Canadians, led by Henri Bourassa, were vehemently opposed to Canadian involvement in what they saw as an imperial war of aggression.

Laurier found himself in an extremely difficult position. On the one hand, he faced pressure from imperialists to send Canadian troops to fight alongside British forces in South Africa. On the other hand, he knew that French Canada would never support such a move. In the end, Laurier struck a compromise, allowing Canadian volunteers to serve in the Boer War but refusing to commit Canada to an official declaration of war. This decision allowed Canada to support the Empire without fully subordinating itself to British military objectives.

The Naval Bill and the 1911 Election

Laurier’s commitment to maintaining Canadian autonomy continued in the years that followed, most notably with the passage of the Naval Service Act in 1910. This act established the Royal Canadian Navy as a small but independent force that could assist Britain in times of crisis but would remain under Canadian control. Laurier’s compromise once again displeased both sides: imperialists wanted Canada to contribute directly to the British Royal Navy, while nationalists in Quebec saw the new navy as a potential tool for future involvement in British wars.

The issue of imperial defense became a major factor in the 1911 federal election, in which Laurier’s Liberals were defeated by Robert Borden’s Conservatives. Borden, like Laurier, believed in Canada’s loyalty to the British Empire, but he took a different approach. He favored direct contributions to Britain’s defense, rather than the creation of a separate Canadian navy, and this position helped him win key support in Quebec, which was increasingly skeptical of Laurier’s compromises.

A Nation on the Path to Full Sovereignty

The period from 1867 to 1911 marked a critical turning point in Canada’s development as a sovereign nation. While still a loyal member of the British Empire, Canada gradually asserted its autonomy in matters of foreign relations, defense, and trade. The creation of the Canadian High Commissioner in London and the establishment of the Royal Canadian Navy were important milestones on this journey, reflecting Canada’s growing confidence in its ability to manage its own affairs.

At the same time, Canada’s evolving relationship with Britain exposed deep cultural divisions within the country, particularly between English Canadians and French Canadians. The debate over imperialism, responsible government, and Canada’s role in the British Empire would continue to shape Canadian politics in the decades to come, particularly during World War I and the later movement towards full sovereignty in the 20th century.